, 2008). Like humans, animals vary in their individual behavioural responses to stress such that stress paradigms can produce cohorts of animals that can be

classified as either stress-susceptible or stress-resilient, depending upon their behavioural response to stress (Krishnan et al., 2007 and Feder et al., 2009). For example, chronic stress in susceptible rodents can induce depression-like behaviours such as anhedonia and social withdrawal, while such behaviours are not induced in resilient animals (Krishnan et al., 2007 and Willner, 1997). Thus, animals can be segregated selleck kinase inhibitor into subgroups of stress-resilient and stress-susceptible animals in an effort to identify the neurobiological mechanisms underlying stress resilience (Jayatissa et al., 2006, Blugeot et al., 2011, Strekalova et al., 2004 and Wood et al., 2010). Interestingly, this variation in the stress response has been linked to hippocampal volumes whereby resilient animals exhibit increase hippocampal volume (by 4%), even after stress, while susceptible animals exhibit decreases in volume (by 1%) (Tse et al., 2014), findings which parallel the volumetric losses in the hippocampus of individuals with depression or PTSD (Sheline et al., 1996 and Felmingham et al., 2009), both of which

are stress-related disorders. However, while many studies have investigated the effects of stress on adult hippocampal neurogenesis, relatively few RG7420 research buy have determined whether stress-induced changes in adult hippocampal neurogenesis occur specifically in animals that are more resilient or more susceptible to the behavioural and neuroendocrine effects of stress. While there is a general agreement that chronic stress can

decrease adult hippocampal neurogenesis (Simon et al., 2005, Jayatissa et al., 2006, Jayatissa et al., 2009, Lehmann et al., 2013, Mitra et al., 2006, Dranovsky and Phosphoprotein phosphatase Hen, 2006, Schoenfeld and Gould, 2012, Pham et al., 2003, Perera et al., 2011 and Fa et al., 2014), it is also important to note that negative findings have also been reported (Hanson et al., 2011a, Lee et al., 2006, Lyons et al., 2010, O’Leary et al., 2012 and Parihar et al., 2011). While these negative findings might be stressor, species, sex or strain-dependent (Schoenfeld and Gould, 2012, Hanson et al., 2011b, Westenbroek et al., 2004 and Lisowski et al., 2011), it is also important to consider that interindividual variation in the behavioural susceptibility to stress might contribute to conflicting findings. This also raises the question as to whether changes in adult hippocampal neurogenesis may predict resilience or susceptibility to stress-induced changes in behaviour. Alternatively, an inhibitors individual’s behavioural response to stress may be independent of the effects of stress on adult hippocampal neurogenesis.

Polymers with lower molecular weight will exhibit faster degradation rates because they have small polymer

chains, which degrade much faster than long polymer chains [70]. Therefore the degradation and drug release rate can be customized to achieve controlled release over several weeks to months by varying polymer ratio and molecular weight. Another important factor is the selection of therapeutic/drug molecule to match the type of implantable delivery systems. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Studies using biodegradable polymers have shown that the chemical properties of drug can affect the rate of polymer degradation, rate of water absorption into the matrix, and drug release rate [71, 72]. The potential formation of polymer-drug matrix could also affect (a) stability of drugs, (b) drug release pattern, (c) safety profiles of drug and polymers, and (d) pH and osmolality of ocular fluids. Since the goal of drug delivery in glaucoma management is to improve therapeutic efficacy while minimizing systemic and local toxicity; it is very important to optimize the process of drug loading and ocular release Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical parameters to avoid dose dumping or erratic drug release profiles. The fact still remains that only within the therapeutic window will drugs maintain balance between efficacy and safety. Even at therapeutically effective and safe drug concentrations, prolonged Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical exposure

of ocular tissues to inserted implant might trigger inflammatory Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical reactions to varying degrees in different patients. In recent years, prostaglandin analogs (e.g., bimatoprost, latanoprost, and travoprost) are being considered over beta-blockers (e.g., timolol maleate) as effective topical agents for lowering IOP in glaucomatous conditions. The prostaglandin analogs are enzymatically cleaved and converted to their active form after they are delivered to

the intended site [10]. Ocular implants Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical for prodrug-based therapies should preserve the rate and extent of ocular activation to therapeutically active form of the drug. Currently a phase 1 efficacy, safety, and tolerability study of latanoprost sustained release insert is underway at the University of Kentucky [43]. 3.2. Choice of Sterilization Process All ocular implants for sustained Calpain drug release must be free from potential health hazards. As such, sterilization is required to destroy or eliminate unwanted living microorganism contamination prior to find more implantation. Sterilization can be carried out by a number of methods such as aseptic method/manufacture, gamma irradiation, heating, and gassing with ethylene oxide [73, 74]. It is known that sterilization methods could modify the polymer properties and impact drug loading and release profiles. For instance, heat sterilization could cause degradation of drug and alteration of polymer micro- and/or macroscopic mechanical properties, while autoclaving is not recommended since it can trigger drug loss or migration of drug to the outer surfaces of implants [75].

00-8.00 AM) and impramine 150 mg/day; (ii) bright light and placebo; or (iii) dim red light (500 lux from 6.00-8.00 AM) and imipramine 150 mg/day. Patients in all 3 groups improved significantly, but the improvement of patients with bright light plus placebo was nonsignificantly superior to the other two groups. Loving et al99 found that in 13 patients with MDD who underwent a half night of home wake therapy (sleep deprivation), those who subsequently received 10 000 lux bright white light for 30 min between 6.00 and 9.00 AM improved 27% in 1 week, compared with those receiving dim red (placebo) light at a comparable time. Bipolar illness Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical The effects of 2 weeks of bright light and 1 week Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of

dim light were investigated in patients with bipolar II SAD versus controls100 and bright light was found to reduce or eliminate all group differences and variability

in behavioral engagement, a mood dimension GW-572016 specifically associated with depression. Papatheodorou and Kutcher101 treated persistent depressive symptoms in adolescentonset bipolar disorder with adjunctive light therapy (10 000 lux twice per day): out of 7 patients, 3 showed a marked (70%) decrease in symptoms, 2 had a moderate (40%) decrease, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and 2 had mild to no response. In 2 patients with bipolar disorder and 1 with recurrent MDD, Praschak-Rieder et al102 observed that within the first week after beginning bright light therapy, 2 subjects attempted suicide and the third patient developed suicidal thoughts that were so acute and overwhelming that

the light therapy had to be discontinued. In Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical a patient with rapid-cycling bipolar illness, Wirz-Justice et al103 found that extending the dark/rest period to 14 h (plus a 1-h midday nap) immediately stopped the rapid cycling and when midday, then morning light therapy was added, depression gradually improved achieving nearcuthymia. In 115 bipolar depressed inpatients treated with total sleep deprivation,104 morning light therapy (150 or 2500 lux) and ongoing lithium treatment significantly enhanced and sustained the effects of total Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical sleep deprivation on mood, with no additional benefit when the two treatments were combined. Women’s mood disorders The efficacy of light treatment has been studied in women with premenstrual (late luteal phase) dysphoric disorder.105-108 whatever In an open trial of morning light therapy for treatment of antepartum depression, Oren et al109 observed that, after 3 weeks of treatment, mean depression ratings improved by 49%. Benefits were seen through 5 weeks of treatment and there was no evidence of adverse effects of light therapy on pregnancy. In two patients with postpartum depression,110 there was a 75% reduction in depressive symptoms with light therapy. In summary, the emerging evidence suggests the potential efficacy of light treatment in MDD, in inpatients and outpatients, and in women’s mood disorders.

The current live attenuated vaccines induce a low VNAb titre in vaccinates after a primary vaccination course suggesting cell-mediated immunity plays an important role in clearance of AHSV infection in horses vaccinated with live attenuated or canarypox VP2/VP5 vaccines [6], [14] and [21]. In the mouse model both cell-mediated and VNAb responses were stimulated by MVA-VP2 vaccination, however see more passive transfer experiments have shown that humoral immunity plays a critical role in protection against AHSV [12] and [22]. In the present study,

MVA-VP2 vaccination induced a relatively high VNAb titre compared to that induced by existing live attenuated vaccines, but cell-mediated immune responses have not yet been measured. In this study we have detected the presence of viral RNA, though at lower levels than in the control animals, in non-infectious blood samples from the vaccinated horses for up to day 21 post-challenge. The high virus challenge dose (107.4 per horse) given by the intravenous route, the natural capacity of AHSV to bind erythrocytes [23] and

the high sensitivity of RT-PCR techniques could explain the presence of viral RNA in the non-infectious blood of vaccinated horses. This is consistent with the findings obtained during the development of an RT-PCR diagnostic assay of AHSV in which viral RNA was detected from the blood of horses inoculated intravenously with 105.5 TCID50/ml up to day 97 post-infection [24]. It is very Sirolimus price difficult to discern from our data whether AHSV RNA in the vaccinates was a result of viral replication in the host or not. Analysis of the antibody responses by the virus neutralisation test and by the VP7 ELISA test showed more than a four-fold Libraries increase in VNAb titre and MycoClean Mycoplasma Removal Kit an increase in VP7 ELISA antibody levels in

paired serum samples collected at day 34 (challenge day) and day 62. This could be an indication of a low level of viral replication in the vaccinates but this could also be the result of an anamnestic response of immune animals to re-exposure to an AHSV antigenic stimulus. Alternatively, virus particles neutralised by serum antibodies, could still be circulating in the vaccinates and could have been the source of viral RNA detected by the RT-PCR assay. Further work is needed to elucidate whether MVA-VP2 vaccination induces a complete sterile immunity but from the results of our study this immune response was sufficient to abrogate AHSV infectivity and to prevent any clinical disease and pyrexia in horses challenged with a high dose of AHSV. This study has demonstrated that MVA vaccines expressing VP2 alone are capable of inducing protective immunity, showing that co-expression of VP5 or other capsid proteins is not essential for the induction of a protective response.

3). In the next phase of analyses we

attempted to identify if different scientific, economic, societal and ethical perspectives led the discussants to arrive at dissimilar conclusions from available evidence base. This required referring to the original articles that the discussants used in building their arguments. Part of this exploration included identifying if same evidence was interpreted differently by different discussants. ABT-263 mouse We also took recent and emerging evidence into account. Of the 177 articles resulting from the data screening process (Fig. 2), 117 were from the domain of ‘epidemiology’, 39 from ‘vaccine’ and 21 from ‘debate’. Articles retrieved under ‘debate’ comprised efficacy, adverse events and immunization performance related discussion, perceptions of pediatricians toward immunization against

rotavirus, as well as policy matters. ‘Vaccine’ articles encompassed clinical trials, mechanisms of action, and inhibitory factors related to oral live vaccines, vaccine uptake by general population in urban and rural settings, as well as economic issues. Most of the articles in ‘epidemiology’ were on hospital based studies, and only 14 out of 117 articles (12%) Crizotinib nmr described community based investigations. While 10 community based Modulators studies were carried out over the last decade, the rest were from an earlier time. Apart from articles referring to rotavirus group A, group B rotavirus studies (occurring rarely and mostly in adults) also featured in our search. Nine articles dealing with infrequent rotavirus genotypes of group A and five about group

B were not included during detailed analysis and thus a total of 163 articles (103 from ‘epidemiology’, Liothyronine Sodium 39 from ‘vaccine’ and 21 from ‘debate’) were analyzed in-depth. Original research and review articles were used in the citation for the present write-up, as deemed appropriate. The earliest article documenting rotavirus in children in India appeared from Vellore in Tamilnadu [15] within a year of its first detection in Australia [16]. We noticed that articles on rotavirus diarrhea subsequently started appearing from various parts of the country, including north-eastern states [17], [18] and [19], all of which appeared under ‘epidemiology’. Cognitive contents in articles used for detailed analyses were arranged into themes as shown in Fig. 3 for synthesizing arguments. The six emerging themes were – (a) disease burden, (b) host factors (mother and child), (c) macro-social environment, (d) the agent (rotavirus) and the vaccine, (e) immunization program issues, and (f) economic issues. Disease burden is presented here under two major headings, (a) morbidity and (b) mortality due to rotavirus diarrhea in India. Most of the information under this topic came from facility based studies [20], and we identified scarcity of data on morbidity and mortality in communities.

73,74 Recently, in a local population in Egypt, it was reported that CNS involvement (vascular stroke, meningeoencephalitis, and dementia) was recorded in nine patients out of 27 patients (33.3%) with brucellosis.75 Treatment is a special problem, and there are different protocols. A combination of doxycycline with rifampin and/or co-trimaxazole for six weeks or

more has been recommended.71,73 Other infectious and non-infectious diseases associated with stroke are summarized in table 1. Table Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical 1: Tropical diseases associated with stroke Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever (CCHF) is thought to be an old disease first described in the former Soviet Union. Since 1999 Iranian Ministry of Health reported a cluster of Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical viral hemorrhagic fever in Sistan-Balouchestan, Isfahan and Golestan provinces in Iran. Fever, myalgia, petechia, purpura, bleeding, thrombocytopenia, anemia and leukopenia

are the main signs, symptoms and laboratory findings.36 Intracerebral hemorrhage due to severe thrombocytopenia may cause hemiparesis or hemiplegia.36 Hemorrhage in the arm compress median or ulnar nerves, and present itself as motor deficit.36 Management of Stroke Management consists of drug therapy, physical rehabilitation, control of risk factors and good nursing care. Antiplatelet drugs are the mainstay of drug treatment.76 They consist of aspirin, dipyridamole, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical ticlopidine Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and clopidogrel. The two last drugs are platelet surface glycoprotein inhibitors.77 For patients with embolic diseases due to cardiac problems or vascular atherothrombotic plaques anticoagulant drugs such as heparin or warfarin could be used. Aspirin is the most frequently used drug in all countries for acute therapy and secondary prevention. Main benefits of aspirin consist of low price and known adverse effects. The most important adverse effect is peptic ulcer and GI bleeding. In those cases ticlopidine and clopidogrel could Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical be useful, but both are expensive. Dipyridamole has an additive pharmacologic effect when used with aspirin. Thrombolysis, carotid this website endarterctomy and vascular stenting are new procedures

which are not available in most countries located in tropical regions. Nursing care include early rehydration, prevention of bedsores, protecting from aspiration pneumonia and rehabilitation. The latter is a combination of physical, occupational and speech therapy. It should however be mentioned that in some situations such as intracranial hemorrhage secondary to CCHF or cerebral malaria antiplatelet drugs and heparin are contraindicated. Treatment of the risk factors such as hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and hypercholesterolemia, and smoking cessation are important features of the stroke management. Decreasing salt intake as well as weight and increase in physical activity also are the other important aspects of stroke management.

73 The adverse mental health consequences were frequent, particularly the development of depression, anxiety, and hostility or anger. There also exists a significant amount of research on stress or “burnout” in people in various helping professions, including nursing home staff and staff caring for persons with dementia.116-121 Stress is the combination of the body’s physical,

mental, and chemical Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical responses to demands. Occupational stress has been defined as the psychological or physical discomfort associated with work that is characterized by heavy demands and limited control over working conditions.112 Nursing home employees have been found to be at significant risk for high levels of occupational stress. Contributing factors SRT1720 mouse include the physical and emotional demands of the work, the negative perception of longterm care is reinforced by low wages, and few options for career advancement and/or recognition. Consequences of this stress include the adverse mental health states previously mentioned as well a loss of self-esteem, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical loss of mastery or control over work situations, and increased absenteeism, lateness, utilization of sick leave and health benefits, and staff turnover. In addition, stressed caregivers Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical may stereotype the elderly.122 This can lead to diminished expectations about the nursing home resident, and the

transference of this belief onto the resident.123 Stressed caregiver behaviors also include childlike treatment of residents, indiscriminate restraint use, and physical and verbal abuse.117 Self-care interventions Learning ways to reduce and handle Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical chronic stress requires a change in lifestyle. Stress reduction techniques can range from very simple to highly specialized biobchavioral treatment. A holistic approach to reducing stress should Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical include learning new coping skills, such as the ability to set limits, problem solving, and the practice of positive thinking. The overall goal should be a healthy lifestyle that combines self-care interventions as well as opportunities for education,

support, and a. responsive work environment. One popular stress-relieving technique is known as the relaxation response. This response produces a relaxed state with reduced breathing and heart rate. A relaxed state is accomplished by sitting quietly, closing one’s eyes, while relaxing muscles progressively from the feet to the head and breathing deeply for 15 to 20 minutes.124 Other similar interventions include first imagery techniques such as visualization, guided imagery, active remembering, meditation, chanting, channeling, and listening to calming music. A healthy lifestyle includes a balanced diet, regular exercise, and adequate rest. A nutritionally sound diet should limit alcohol, caffeine, and sugar intake. Also to be avoided are skipped and hurried meals, as well as chronic dieting. Exercise has been found to be a stress reliever.

Note that the term “reward outcome” is used to refer to the particular outcome for each individual trial – not to the reward outcome of the preceding trial. Also we did not analyze penalty or

punishment effects because of the small number of incorrect (or slow) responses (see Table 2). In this sense, the incentive effects are driven largely by the (fictive) reward outcomes – noting that the actually monetary recompense for participating in the study was established in advance and was the same for all subjects. Table 2 Behavior results The ensuring contrast images for each participant were entered into second-level random-effects group analyses, using one sample t-tests to produce statistical parametric Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical t-maps (SPMs) testing for regionally specific effects. The fMRI results are reported at a corrected significance level of P < 0.05 using a Monte Carlo correction with cluster size threshold of 85 (2 mm3). Group-level interaction effects Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical between anticipation (reward vs. non-reward) and conflict (congruent vs. incongruent) were determined by a 2 × 2 repeated measures ANOVA. We illustrated the significant interaction effects plotting

the magnitudes of the effects in each SB203580 cost region obtained with an 8-mm radius sphere centered on the peak Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical voxel of target-related activity in each region. Interaction effects were tested within volumes defined by the (orthogonal) main effects of anticipation. The use of orthogonal localizing contrasts protects against biased sampling (Friston et al. 2006). Results Behavioral results There was a significant main effect of conflict on RT, with RTs significantly

longer for incongruent than Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical congruent flankers (Table 2, F1,15 = 92.258, P < 0.001). Similarly, there was a significant main effect of anticipation (F1,15 = 5.900, P < 0.028). However, there was no interaction between anticipation and conflict (F1,15 = 3.226, P = 0.93) (Table 2, Fig. 2). Although response accuracy was higher for congruent (98.6%) versus incongruent flankers (96.9%), these differences Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical were not significant. Post hoc analyses showed that RT2 (mean = 544.30 msec, SD = 92.58 msec) was significantly shorter than RT1 (mean = 556.34 msec, SD = 107.32 msec, P = 0.038), and that RT3 was the longest (mean = 622.97 msec, SD = 215.40 msec). Figure 2 Behavior results. Neuroimaging results Reward anticipation Contrasts for reward minus non-reward cues showed significant activation in components of the attentional network, including Rolziracetam the right superior parietal cortex, the inferior occipital cortexes bilaterally, the left lingual gyrus, the left thalamus, and the left putamen (Table 3, Fig. 3). Figure 3 Activation during reward components of the ACR task. Statistical parametric maps in axial views showing significant blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) signal changes. (A) BOLD signal increase in the left putamen generated by the reward–non-reward …

ispg.org) agree that genetic testing for schizophrenia is premature at this stage, given the small odds ratios and inconsistent replications reviewed above. Until some as-yet unknown approach is achieved to combine large numbers of small effect genes into meaningful prediction algorithms, we are likely facing many more years

of research before acceptable testing for risk is possible. More hopefully, the uncommon but large effect CNVs on 22q, 15q, 16p, and 1q, that appear to Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical be replicating fairly well in large datasets, may lead to tests that could identify molecular subtypes for at least a small percentage of schizophrenia cases. These molecular subtypes may in turn lead to better understanding of the pathogenesis Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of schizophrenia, and treatment might become more specific and individualized for these cases. Through the continued efforts of careful investigation in genetics of schizophrenia that embrace the nuances of phenotype and the latest technological developments, the field has an excellent chance to solve the etiologic puzzle of this enigmatic disorder.
GSK J4 price compulsive hoarding is a syndrome characterized by excessive

Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical collecting and saving behavior that results in a cluttered living space and significant distress or impairment.1 In the past decade, there has been a notable increase in research on hoarding, including its phenomenology, pathophysiology, and treatment Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical approaches. This surge in interest has been coupled with contention regarding key aspects of the disorder. These controversies have led to exciting new research that has deepened our understanding of this complex syndrome. The aim of this article is to describe some of these debated issues, as well as to highlight recent advances in compulsive hoarding research. Diagnostic status An obvious example of a current debate within hoarding research is the question of where hoarding belongs

within our diagnostic nosology. The uncertainty regarding Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the most appropriate classification of compulsive hoarding syndrome has had important consequences for our understanding of hoarding, and in some ways has constituted an obstacle to hoarding research. The lack of clear placement within DSM has led to an underestimation of the significance of the burden of disease associated with compulsive hoarding, inconsistencies Thiamine-diphosphate kinase with respect to an appropriate clinical comparison group in hoarding research, difficulties comparing findings across hoarding studies, and misconceptions regarding which assessment and treatment models are most relevant to hoarding. In the DSM-IV-TR,2 hoarding is described as difficulty discarding items, and is listed as one of the eight diagnostic criteria for obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD). Accumulating evidence, however, suggests that it is misleading and invalid to classify hoarding as part of OCPD.

18 In patients with painful bladder syndrome/interstitial cystitis (PBS/IC), neurotrophins, including NGF, neurotrophin-3, and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor, have been detected in the urine.19 Increased expression of NGF is also present in bladder biopsies from women with PBS/IC.20 Thus, target organ-neural interactions mediated by an increase of neurotrophins in the bladder and increased transport of neurotrophins to the neuronal cell bodies #MEK inhibitor keyword# in afferent pathways may contribute to the emergence of bladder pain in PBS/IC.8 Patients with PBS/IC who responded to intravesical botulinum toxin injection have been found

to have reduced bladder tissue NGF expression (Figure 2).21 Figure 2 Increased nerve growth factor (NGF)

expression in the apical cells of urothelium, suburothelium, and nerves were noted in a patient with painful bladder syndrome/interstitial cystitis Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical (red arrows, A) and decreased in response to intravesical botulinum … In the urinary tract, NGF is produced by urothelium and smooth muscle.18 Clinical and experimental data indicate a direct link between increased levels of NGF in bladder tissue and urine and painful inflammatory conditions in the lower urinary tract, such as bladder outlet obstruction (BOO), OAB, PBS/IC, and Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical chronic prostatitis.18–20 Increased levels of NGF have also been reported in the bladder tissue and urine of patients with sensory urgency and DO.22,23

Studies on NGF in OAB or DO usually measure the bladder tissue level. A recent study measuring NGF concentration using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in superficial Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical bladder biopsies from 12 women with DO and 15 without urodynamic DO did not show a significant correlation with tissue NGF level.24 It is impossible to standardize the quantity of epithelium; suburothelium and muscle with a bladder biopsy and this study confirm our experience that urine NGF measurement is a simple, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical safe, and more accurate assay, and one Calpain that can be standardized. Evidence has shown that visceral epithelia are a major source of NGF production and that NGF may regulate the function of adult visceral sensory and motor neurons.25 The level of NGF in urine could increase bladder sensation or cause DO through some undetermined pathway.11 If the urinary NGF level differs among normal controls and patients with increased bladder sensation, OAB dry, or OAB wet, then urinary NGF level could be a biomarker for diagnosing OAB or assessing therapeutic outcome. Kim and colleagues26 found that urinary NGF levels increase in men and women with OAB syndrome. Yokoyama and associates27 evaluated urine NGF in 51 OAB patients that included men and women with DO, OAB without DO, BOO, and neurogenic DO.