Once inside the cell, DHE is rapidly oxidized to ethidium (a red fluorescent compound) by superoxide and/or H2O2 (in the presence of peroxidase). Neutrophils (5 × 105/well) were incubated with 5 μM DHE for 15 min at room temperature in the dark. Afterwards, the cells were treated and stimulated with PMA (20 ng/well). As a internal control, cells were treated with either 10 μM DPI or 5 μM rotenone (a complex 1 – electron transport chain inhibitor), and 0.4 mM sodium azide (SA), a complex III – electron transport chain inhibitor for 30 min prior to treatment. Also, to ensure the specificity of DHE to superoxide anion, hydrogen peroxide (50 μM)

was added to control-PMA stimulated cells. The fluorescence was analyzed in a microplate reader (Tecan, Salzburg, Austria) (396 nm wavelength excitation and 590 nm wavelength emission). The results were expressed as percentage of the Selleck Staurosporine control group. The lucigenin chemiluminescent

probe was utilized to measure the extracellular superoxide anion content mainly produced through NADPH-oxidase activation. Lucigenin releases energy in the form of light after excitation by superoxide anion. The chemiluminescence produced was monitored by a luminometer for 60 min (Tecan, Salzburg, Austria). Lucigenin (5 μM) was added to cells (5 × 105/well) treated with or without 20 mM of glucose and 30 μM of MGO, in the presence or absence of 2 μM of astaxanthin, 100 μM of vitamin C in Tyrode’s buffer supplemented with fetal bovine serum 1%. The experiments were carried out in triplicate in the presence selleck chemicals llc and absence of opsonized zymosan particles (1 × 106/well) used as a ROS-inducer. As internal control, 10 μM diphenyleneiodonium (DPI), a NADPH-oxidase

inhibitor, or 0.4 mM sodium azide (SA), a complex III – electron transport chain inhibitor, were added to control cells 30 min prior to the lucigenin evaluation. Carbachol Results are expressed as chemiluminescence relative units. The statistical analysis was performed by AUC calculation (area under the curve) of at least three different experiments performed in triplicate. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) production was measured according to Pick and Mizel (1981), based on horseradish peroxidase, which catalyzes the phenol red oxidation by H2O2. Neutrophils (5 × 105/well) were incubated with or without 2 μM of astaxanthin, 100 μM of vitamin C and 20 mM of glucose, and 30 μM of MGO in Tyrode’s buffer, mixed with 0.28 mM phenol red and horseradish peroxidase (1,000 units/mg) at 37 °C for 1 h. The production of H2O2 was measured in the absence and presence of PMA (20 ng/well). The reaction was terminated by alkalinization (addition of 10 μL of NaOH 1 M solution) and absorbance at 620 nm was measured to evaluate H2O2 concentration (compared to a standard curve). The results were expressed as percentage of the control group.