More common are pathologies with defective CMA at the level of substrate translocation across the membrane. PD-related proteins α-synuclein, LRRK2, and UCH-L1 interfere with the assembly of the CMA translocation complex [35• and 36], whereas in tauopathies, pathogenic tau

remains stuck inside the translocation complex [37] (Figure 2). Conditions that destabilize LAMP-2A at the lysosomal membrane, like dietary lipid challenges or aging, also affect translocation [38]. Altered protein quality control, disrupted metabolic homeostasis, and inefficient see more stress response are common consequences of most types of autophagic failure. Other detrimental effects of disrupted macroautophagy vary depending on the site of autophagic blockage. Atezolizumab ic50 For example, defects in macroautophagy initiation or cargo recognition lead to toxicity because of persistence of cargo in the cytosol. Failure to degrade lipid stores can lead to their toxic accumulation, and in fact defective lipophagy has been postulated to underlie the basis of fatty liver diseases [6••]. Defective glycophagy would lead to cytosolic glycogen deposition [7], different

from its intralysosomal accumulation in LSD such as Pompe disease. Accumulation of cargo inside autophagic vacuoles or lysosomes, although less toxic, also gradually alters cellular homeostasis in part due to a vesicular traffic-jam and in part because of the failure to recycle

the breakdown products of the sequestered material. When defective clearance persists, autophagosome membrane stability is often compromised, leading to toxicity from cytosolic leakage of enzymes and undegraded materials, as described in Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) [14]. Defects in initiation of autophagy may benefit from treatments that increase autophagosome formation. However, this treatment would be ineffective when compromise occurs in the later macroautophagy steps, as it would only exacerbate the vesicular traffic-jam. Therapies should aim at repairing the specific defect, restoring cytoskeleton dynamics, facilitating PAK6 autophagosome/lysosome fusion, or in case of primary defects in lysosomes, at recovering full degradative capacity. Interestingly, even in the presence of the original defect, expanding the lysosomal compartment, for example by expressing TFEB [39 and 40] or enhancing the degradative capacity of lysosomes [41], has proven beneficial in neurodegenerative diseases. To date, all of the described CMA defects affect substrate targeting or lysosomal translocation. Persistence of CMA substrates in the cytosol due to faulty targeting leads to toxicity in part from undesirable conformational changes (aggregation) and in part from loss of their specific cellular functions.