Both mTORC1 and mTORC2 are needed for podocyte development and podocyte maintenance. Glomerular disease activates mTOR in podocytes, likely in an attempt to maintain podocyte homeostasis. However, this mTOR activation, Abiraterone FDA which may provide some short-term benefits, ultimately causes proteinuria and glomerulosclerosis and facilitates disease progression. Genetically reducing mTOR levels by eliminating 1 Raptor allele dramatically prevents the consequences of excessive mTOR activation, suggesting that correctly timed inhibition of mTOR activity may prevent podocyte injury and ameliorate the progression of common glomerular diseases such as diabetic nephropathy. Methods Mice. Mice, in which exon 6 of the Raptor gene or exons 4 and 5 of the Rictor gene, respectively, are flanked by 2 loxP sequences, have been previously reported (20, 21).

NPHS2.Cre mice were provided by Lawrence Holzman (Renal, Electrolyte, and Hypertension Division, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA) (19). Raptor-floxed mice (Raptorflox/flox) or Rictor-floxed mice (Rictorflox/flox) were crossed with NPHS2.Cre mice to generate podocyte-specific Raptor knockout mice Raptorflox/flox;NPHS2.Cre (Raptor��podocyte) or podocyte-specific Rictor-knockout mice Rictorflox/flox;NPHS2.Cre (Rictor��podocyte) respectively. Heterozygous or NPHS2.Cre�Cnegative litter mates served as controls. To generate podocyte-specific Raptor plus Rictor double-knockout mice (Raptor/Rictor��podocyte), Raptorflox/flox;NPHS2.Cre were crossed with Rictorflox/flox;NPHS2.Cre mice.

All Raptorflox/flox, Rictorflox/flox, and Raptor/Rictor��podocyte mice were crossed on a pure C57BL/6 background. For all STZ experiments, mice were backcrossed for 5 generations on an ICR background, which sensitizes the mice toward the development of diabetic nephropathy (IcrTac:ICRl Taconic USA). NPHS2.rtTA;tetO.Cre mice were provided by Susan Quaggin (Samuel Lunenfeld Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada) (27). To generate doxycycline-inducible podocyte-specific Raptor-knockout mice (Raptorflox/flox;NPHS2.rtTA;tetO.Cre), Raptor-floxed mice (Raptorflox/flox) were crossed with NPHS2.rtTA;tetO.Cre mice; tetO.Cre negative littermates served as control. NPHS2.rtTA;tetO.Cre mice were transferred on a pure C57BL/6 background. For generation of NPHS2.

rtTA;tetO.Cre mice on an ICR background, which are more sensitive toward glomerular disease, mice were backcrossed for 5 generations (IcrTac:ICR; Taconic). For the induction of Raptor deletion, mice received doxycycline hydrochloride (Sigma-Aldrich) via drinking water (2 mg/ml with 5% sucrose, protected from light) during pregnancy and nursing (embryonic deletion) Carfilzomib or at 8 weeks of age (adult deletion). mT/mG;NPHS2.rtTA;tetO.