20 Rarely, drugs can induce cholelithiasis or may mimic large duct sclerosing cholangitis, resulting in extrahepatic obstruction.21 Occasionally, extrahepatic manifestation of drug toxicity may provide clues to the diagnosis. Amoxicillin–clavulanate can cause acute interstitial nephritis and acute lacrimal gland inflammation along with hepatic injury.22 Similarly, contaminated rapeseed

oil poisoning can cause high throughput screening both pulmonary toxicity and drug-induced cholestasis concomitantly.23 Drug-induced cholestasis can be categorized into several groups (Tables 1 and 2): These drug-induced cholestatic disorders are rare and cause minimal or buy Birinapant no hepatic parenchymal involvement. This form of drug-induced cholestasis manifests itself histologically by pure canalicular cholestasis, typically produced by estrogen or anabolic steroids. Cholestasis associated with hepatitis is characterized by portal inflammation and varying degrees of hepatocyte

injury and necrosis. These forms of drug-induced cholestasis exhibit bile duct injury associated with minimal involvement of parenchymal liver cell injury. These drug-induced cholestatic disorders vary from asymptomatic patients with isolated elevations in AP or gamma glutamyl transferase (GGT) and liver histology showing only mild bile duct disarray or “ductopenia”, to progressive forms of the VBDS.24 Although some reports of asymptomatic idiopathic adulthood click here ductopenia fail to identify a causative agent,25 others suggest that these cases may originate from overlooked drug-induced bile duct injury.26, 27 The common drugs known

to cause the various drug-induced cholestasis syndromes are listed in Table 3. Hepatocytes are highly polarized cells with distinct sinusoidal, lateral, and apical membrane domains. Lipid-soluble drugs with molecular weights ∼500 daltons or greater are selectively removed by the liver across the sinusoidal domain. Although some drugs diffuse across the cellular membrane, most require active or facilitated transporters (phase 0).5, 28, 29 Cellular uptake and binding to cytosolic proteins is followed by phase 1 and phase 2 biotransformation resulting in more water-soluble metabolites. Phase 1 reactions involve oxidation, hydroxylation, and other reactions mediated by the cytochrome P450 (CYP) system, particularly CYP3A4. The activity of the CYP system varies greatly among individuals and their transcription is highly regulated by xenobiotic sensing nuclear receptors such as the pregnane X receptor (PXR) and the constitutive androstane receptor. Phase 2 reactions involve esterification reactions that form conjugates with sulfate, glucuronic acid, amino acids, or glutathione molecules.