37 Although much more experimental work is needed on the issue of engagement, there is a small but promising body of literature which JNK inhibition suggests that modest amount of cognitive gains can be realized by engagement in tasks that demand sustained cognitive effort. The engagement issue is an important one because engaging activities are intrinsically satisfying and can be sustained indefinitely with considerable pleasure. Unlike cognitive training that relies on computer training and may deprive individuals of social engagement and pursuit of satisfying activities, immersion in a social learning environment has the potential Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical to confer cognitive protection while meeting basic psychological needs for social

interactions and purpose in life. Figure 2. A conceptual model of the scaffolding theory of aging and cognition (STAC). Summary and conclusions There is some evidence that the aging brain is malleable and that cognitive function can be facilitated through cognitive training or engagement in demanding tasks that provide a sustained cognitive challenge. Unfortunately, the most durable Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical effects observed in old adults are gains on the trained task, with

only limited evidence that “far transfer” (ie, improvement on an array of tasks that share similarity in processes but Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical not content to the trained task) is possible. Nevertheless, the persistence of training effects over a period of years is both impressive and somewhat unexpected. Despite remarkable tools to examine neural structure and function in the aging brain, a great Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical deal of work needs to be done to understand whether changes in neural function are indicative of neural plasticity or merely represent shifts in strategy. Evidence suggests that older adults show less neuroplasticity than younger subjects, and we argue that interventions that successfully delay agerelated cognitive decline will yield greater benefits than short-term facilitation of cognition. An important aspect of cognitive enhancement techniques that is not considered sufficiently is how enjoyable the activities to be

performed are. We argue that engagement Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical in challenging leisure Astemizole activities that activate core cognitive processes such as working memory, episodic memory, and reasoning may ultimately prove to be more effective than computer-based training techniques due to the ability to of older adults to sustain interesting leisure activities indefinitely. One of the greatest research challenges facing this domain of research is to demonstrate that cognitive training results in meaningful gains in everyday life or delays onset of Alzheimer’s disease or other neurological disorders. Another area of particular importance is understanding the meaning of neural change and what type of neural change represents enhancement (eg, decreased activity could represent enhanced neural efficiency or insufficient neural engagement). The field would greatly profit from evidence for replicability of important findings.